Islam is a major monotheistic religion that originated in the 7th century CE in the Arabian Peninsula, founded by the Prophet Muhammad. With approximately 1.9 billion followers, Islam is the second-largest religion in the world, encompassing diverse beliefs, practices, and cultures across the globe. Central to Islam is the belief in the Oneness of God (Tawhid) and adherence to the teachings of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the literal word of God revealed to Muhammad. The religion is characterized by its foundational practices known as the Five Pillars of Islam, which include the declaration of faith (Shahada), daily prayers (Salah), almsgiving (Zakat), fasting during Ramadan (Sawm), and the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).
“There is no deity except Allah, and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.” (Quran, Surah Muhammad, 47:19)
Islam is divided primarily into two major branches: Sunni and Shia. Sunni Islam, which comprises approximately 85-90% of Muslims worldwide, emphasizes community consensus and the teachings of early Muslim scholars. Shia Islam, representing about 10-15% of Muslims, arose from a dispute over the rightful leadership of the Muslim community following Muhammad’s death and is characterized by the belief in a line of Imams as spiritual leaders. Various sects, such as the Druze and Ahmadiyya, further illustrate the rich diversity within Islamic belief systems, with some groups facing significant controversies and persecution for their distinct theological positions.
Throughout its history, Islam has influenced numerous civilizations, contributing to advancements in science, philosophy, art, and law. The legal framework of Islam, known as Sharia, is derived from the Quran and the Hadith, governing a wide array of personal and societal matters.
However, the interpretation and application of Sharia have become contentious topics in contemporary society, prompting debates over human rights, gender equality, and the role of Islam in modern governance. Additionally, internal divisions and sectarian conflicts, notably between Sunni and Shia communities, have led to significant political and social strife in various regions. As a religion that shapes the identities and lives of millions, Islam remains a focal point of global discourse, affecting interfaith relations, geopolitical dynamics, and cultural exchanges in an increasingly interconnected world.
History
Early Islamic Period (632–750)
The early Islamic period began with the establishment of the Rashidun Caliphate, which lasted from 632 to 661 and included the first four caliphs: Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. This period was characterized by rapid military expansion, leading to significant territorial gains and the establishment of a political structure for the growing Muslim community. Following the Rashidun era, the Umayyad Caliphate emerged in 661, marking the transition to dynastic rule under Mu’awiya I, the governor of Greater Syria. The Umayyads maintained Syria as their power base with Damascus as the capital, significantly influencing the cultural and political landscape of the Islamic world during this time.
Sectarian Developments
The early Islamic community witnessed the emergence of various sects and interpretations of Islam. The Druze, for instance, is often considered a quasi-Muslim sect by some Sunnis due to their nonritualistic approach to religion, which does not involve traditional Islamic practices such as prayer or fasting.
Additionally, the Ahmadiyya Movement, founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in British India, introduced distinct beliefs that diverged from mainstream Islamic thought. Ahmad claimed to be the promised Messiah and a subordinate prophet to Muhammad. These beliefs have led to the Ahmadiyya being rejected as heretical by many Muslims, resulting in persecution, particularly in Pakistan, where they are officially regarded as non-Muslims.
Influence of Sufism
Sufism, a mystical interpretation of Islam, also began to take root during the early centuries of Islam. Sufi congregations formed orders (tariqa) centered around teachers (wali), who traced their spiritual lineage back to Muhammad. Sufis played a crucial role in missionary and educational activities across various regions, contributing to the spread of Islam and the formation of distinct Muslim societies. The Sufi-influenced Ahle Sunnat movement, particularly the Barelvi movement in South Asia, claims a large following and showcases the significant impact of Sufism on Islamic practices.
“And We have already created man and know what his soul whispers to him, and We are closer to him than [his] jugular vein.” (Quran, 50:16)
The Gunpowder Empires
The centralized states of the gunpowder empires significantly influenced Islamic practices among their populations. In the Ottoman Empire, a strong symbiosis between the rulers and Sufism emerged, with the Mevlevi and Bektashi Orders enjoying close relationships with the sultans. In contrast, the Safavid Empire’s forceful conversion of Iran to Twelver Shia Islam resulted in the dominance of this sect within Shia Islam. Persian migrants to South Asia played a key role in spreading Shia beliefs, leading to the establishment of significant Shia communities outside of Iran.
Beliefs and Practices
Islamic beliefs and practices are deeply rooted in the faith’s foundational texts and are manifested in the daily lives of its followers. Central to these is the framework of the Five Pillars of Islam, which serve as the core acts of worship and are viewed as essential for anyone striving to live a life aligned with the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad.
Core Beliefs
At the heart of Islamic belief is the acknowledgment of the Oneness of God (Tawhid) and the importance of following the guidance revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. Muslims believe that the Quran, which is considered the literal word of God, provides a comprehensive guide for living a righteous life. Among the key beliefs is the Day of Judgment (Mi’ad), where individuals will be held accountable for their actions.
The Five Pillars of Islam
Shahada: The Declaration of Faith
The first pillar is the Shahada, which is the declaration of faith stating that there is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His messenger. This testimony is the foundation of a Muslim’s belief and signifies their entry into the faith.
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Salah: Prayer
The second pillar, Salah, refers to the five daily prayers that are obligatory for Muslims. These prayers are performed at specific times throughout the day and are a direct link between the worshipper and Allah.
“Establish prayer, indeed prayer prohibits immorality and wrongdoing.” (Quran, 29:45)
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Zakat: Almsgiving
Zakat, or almsgiving, is the third pillar and involves giving a portion of one’s wealth to those in need. It serves both as a form of worship and a means to promote social equity.
“Take, [O, Muhammad], from their wealth a charity by which you purify them and cause them to increase.” (Quran, 9:103)
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Sawm: Fasting during Ramadan
The fourth pillar, Sawm, involves fasting during the holy month of Ramadan. During this month, Muslims abstain from food, drink, and other physical needs from dawn until sunset, promoting self-discipline and empathy for the less fortunate.
“O you who have believed, decreed upon you is fasting as it was decreed upon those before you that you may become righteous.”(Quran, 2:183)
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Hajj: Pilgrimage to Mecca
The fifth pillar is Hajj, the pilgrimage to the holy city of Mecca, which every Muslim must undertake at least once in their lifetime if they are physically and financially able. The Hajj includes several rituals designed to foster a sense of unity among Muslims and their devotion to Allah.
“And proclaim to the people the Hajj; they will come to you on foot and on every lean camel.” (Quran, 22:27)
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Daily Practices and Customs
Islamic traditions are not limited to these formal acts of worship; they permeate daily life. Muslims adhere to dietary laws known as Halal, which govern permissible foods and methods of preparation. Modesty in dress and behavior is also emphasized, often seen in traditional garments such as the hijab for women and the thobe for men.
Community and Family Values
Community and family play a significant role in the Islamic way of life. Communal prayers, especially the Friday Jumu’ah prayer, are essential for strengthening the bonds of the community. Family life is cherished, with particular respect for elders and a focus on nurturing the next generation.
Celebrations
Islamic celebrations, such as Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, hold special significance. Eid al-Fitr marks the end of Ramadan with communal prayers and feasting, while Eid al-Adha commemorates the willingness of Prophet Ibrahim to sacrifice his son, with celebrations including the ritual sacrifice of an animal and sharing the meat with family and those in need.
Branches of Islam
Islam is primarily divided into two major branches: Sunni and Shia, each encompassing various sects and interpretations.
Sunni Islam
Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, comprising approximately 85-90% of the global Muslim community.
Sunni Muslims adhere to the teachings of the Prophet Muhammad as recorded in the Hadith, and they follow four main schools of jurisprudence known as Madh’habs: Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, and Hanbali. These schools were established based on the teachings of prominent scholars, including Abū Ḥanīfa, Malik ibn Anas, al-Shafi’i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal.
Sunni Islam emphasizes community consensus (ijma) and the importance of following the practices of the Prophet and the early Muslim community.
Notable Sunni Groups
Within Sunni Islam, there are several notable groups, including Salafism, which advocates a return to the practices of the early Muslims and often views various cultural and devotional practices, including those associated with Sufism, as innovations (bid’ah) that diverge from pure Islamic teachings.
This has sometimes led to tensions and conflicts between Salafis and Sufi practitioners.
Shia Islam
Shia Islam represents a significant minority within the Muslim community, with around 10-15% of Muslims identifying as Shia.
The Shia branch originated from a dispute over the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad, leading to the belief in a line of Imams who are considered the spiritual and political successors of the Prophet. The largest group within Shia Islam is the Twelvers (Ithna Ashariyya), who believe in a succession of twelve Imams, the last of whom, Imam Mahdi, is believed to be in occultation and will return as a messianic figure.
Major Shia Sects
In addition to the Twelvers, there are other Shia sects, including Ismailis and Zaidis, each with unique beliefs and practices. Ismailis, for instance, differ from Twelvers in their line of Imams and interpretative approaches to Islamic teachings.
Other Branches and Sects
Beyond Sunni and Shia Islam, several other smaller sects and movements exist, including the Druze, Ahmadiyya, and Ibadi. The Druze, while emerging from Ismaili Shia roots, consider themselves distinct and are often regarded as a nonritualistic religion, with beliefs that diverge significantly from traditional Islamic practices.
Similarly, the Ahmadiyya community has faced controversy and persecution from mainstream Muslim groups for its distinct theological beliefs.
Islamic Law and Ethics
Islamic law, known as Sharia, is derived from the Quran and the Sunnah (practices of the Prophet Muhammad). It encompasses a comprehensive legal framework that governs the lives of Muslims, addressing a wide array of issues including personal conduct, family relations, and social justice. The sources of Sharia also include qiyas (analogical reasoning), ijma (consensus), and various interpretations of Islamic scholars over the centuries.
“Indeed, We have sent down to you the Book in truth so you may judge between the people by that which Allah has shown you.” (Quran, 4:105)
Foundations of Sharia
The primary texts of Islam, the Quran and Hadith, form the basis of Sharia. They are supplemented by the practice of qiyas, which allows for the adaptation of legal principles to new situations not explicitly covered in these texts. This process has led to the recognition of a wide spectrum of legal opinions within the Islamic tradition, permitting variations in practice across different cultures and communities.
Categories of Legal Rulings
Islamic legal rulings are classified into five categories known as ahkam: mandatory (fard), recommended (mustahabb), permitted (mubah), abhorred (makruh), and prohibited (haram). This classification system allows for nuanced ethical and legal judgments, reflecting the complexity of human behavior and societal needs.
Historical Context and Development
After the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, early Muslim leaders began interpreting religious texts to establish Sharia, which became foundational for Islamic governance and social order. Over time, this led to the formation of distinct schools of Islamic jurisprudence, each with its interpretations and legal methodologies.
“The best of generations is my generation, then those who follow them, then those who follow them.” (Bukhari)
The Ottoman Empire’s 19th-century reforms attempted to codify these laws through statutes influenced by European models, particularly in civil matters, while personal status laws remained deeply rooted in traditional jurisprudence.
Contemporary Issues
In modern times, the role of Sharia in governance and its compatibility with secular legal systems has sparked significant debate. Islamic revival movements have called for a comprehensive implementation of Sharia, raising questions about human rights, gender equality, and freedom of thought within Muslim societies. As such, the interpretation and application of Sharia continue to evolve, reflecting both traditional values and contemporary challenges.
